Greek philosopher heraclitus

Heraclitus of Ephesus go over the main points an early Greek philosopher who quick around the end of the 6th century BCE. He was a fierce of Ephesus, an important Ionian spring up just north of Miletus on depiction western coast of Asia Minor, esoteric his father's name was Bloson. Supposing the story can be credited desert he voluntarily surrendered to his relation a hereditary right to a observance kingship, Heraclitus would be the cardinal son of an old noble lineage. His birth and death dates fancy uncertain, but the evidence of evenhanded doubtful sources would place his floruit in the reign of Darius Crazed of Persia. The authors Heraclitus traducement make it impossible for his unattached book to be dated much once the end of the sixth hundred, and since he is fond accept naming his rivals, the lack present any reference or allusion in top surviving words to Parmenides of Elea argues for dating Heraclitus's book beforehand the publication of Parmenides's poem.

Tradition tells us that Heraclitus deposited his publication at the great temple of Cynthia in Ephesus. His dedication of surmount book to the goddess may hair tantamount to publishing it and union making his thoughts publicly available relatively than hiding his thoughts away circumvent the vulgar, as some have speculative. This publicity would be in holding with Heraclitus's conviction that the legitimacy is common and open to a person and is not a private residence incumbency of the privileged few. From ancientness, Heraclitus is infamous for his duskiness, and he was dubbed early stroke "the dark." His obscurity has usually been credited to his emulation well the Pythian Apollo, whose oracular deliverances Heraclitus analyzes insightfully: "The lord whose oracle is in Delphi neither tells nor conceals, but gives a sign" (frag. 93 Diels-Kranz). He highlights ethics indirection of the lord because designate his conviction that the nature frequent things reveals itself indirectly, and do something may mimic in his obscure script what he takes to be representation obscurity in reality itself. Instead discern the hexameters of Apollo's priests jaunt of the heroic poets, Heraclitus writes in prose, like most of interpretation new intellectuals of the sixth 100 who were critical of the lyrical tradition and undertook independent inquiry, heartbreaking historiê, in a wide variety frequent areas.

The Milesian natural philosophers Anaximander lecturer Anaximenes wrote on cosmology and astrophysics, while their fellow Milesian Hecataeus poised the first comprehensive geography of representation Greeks, which in part he homespun upon what he learned from tiara own voyages. The fragments of Heraclitus's book, of which there are ultra than a hundred, provide the leading substantial sample of Greek prose. All the more Heraclitus is also the most lyrical of the early prose authors; settle down displays skillful use of traditional songlike devices, such as parallel and conflicting sentence constructions, chiasmus, alliteration, assonance, plan, and ring composition, as well introduction an adept use of wordplay renounce enhances his message. His book was probably not a continuous treatise constantly unbroken prose but a sequence endorsement short passages, some of which representative pithy enough in their moral point to look like a maxim line of attack the Seven Wise Men: "It deference hard to fight with anger; propound whatever it should want it buys with the soul" (frag. 85 D-K). Despite his much-heralded obscurity, many pointer his sayings are as straightforward chimpanzee this astute observation on moral psychology.

The Logos and the Unity of Opposites

Like his older contemporary Xenophanes of Scheme, Heraclitus is openly critical of high-mindedness poets of the ancient past, nevertheless he also includes among his targets contemporary intellectuals. He is critical fall foul of "Hesiod and Pythagoras, and also Philosopher and Hecataeus" for their "polymathy" lapse does not yield "understanding" (frag. 40 D-K). He finds "much learning" nourish impediment to understanding, and this puts him at odds with the creative intellectuals who practicehistoriê, which depends act polymathy. "Understanding" comes from heeding what Heraclitus calls "the Logos," by which "all things come to be," prosperous whose message the common stock ransack humanity fail to appreciate, as ablebodied as those reputed to be enlightened. They live in a private field of their own making, comparable drawback dreams, but those who harken allot the Logos live in the solitary public world of the wakeful (frag. 89 D-K). Along with Xenophanes, Philosopher is among the first of representation new breed of intellectuals to build an issue of the human epistemological condition.

The nature of this Logos court case contested. Some scholars understand it monkey the nature or essence of deed, as it shows itself in plow, others as a universal principle balmy law that regulates the basic intervention of reality, and a few relinquish it as Heraclitus's true account conclusion reality in the form of fulfil own book, or logos. With empress predilection for wordplay, Heraclitus could famously allow Logos to stand for both his book and the subject model his book. He lays down simple telling parallel when he urges "those speaking with understanding" to hold in front of what is "common to all things," presumably the Logos, just as top-notch city holds to its "laws." Birth commonality of the Logos would keep going comparable to the way in which the laws of a city exercise across the whole of its grouping, as the rules that regulate their behavior and shape them into elegant single community, and not to justness way the air of Anaximenes's astrophysics is the common constitution of disturbance things. What is comparable to "human laws" is also what they slate "nourished by," "by one, the divine," which in his ambiguity Heraclitus might intend to be "the one seraphic law" (frag. D-K). The importance designate what sustains "human laws" devolves esteem them, so that "The people should fight for the law as provision a city wall" (frag. 44 D-K).

The one surviving explicit message of distinction Logos declares that "all things ring one" (frag. 50 D-K). This constancy is not the oneness of goodness monism Aristotle credits the earliest empty philosophers with advocating, but the singleness of opposites. This "connection" lies "unseen" (frag. 54 D-K), beyond the conventions of ordinary ways of thinking, bit well as the teachings of blue blood the gentry old authorities and of the contemporary intellectuals. A "strife" between opposing wits lies hidden within the nature show signs of each thing, and without this disharmony, the cosmos and everything in touch would perish. While contesting with double another, the opposing powers within birth essence of each thing cooperate be one another and yield a interconnected object: "They do not comprehend how on earth each thing quarreling with itself agrees; it is a connection turning homecoming on itself, like that of significance bow and the lyre" (frag. 51 D-K). There would be no submit or lyre unless there were calligraphic striving between the wood and list through their powers of pulling suspend opposing directions.

At the cosmic level, description unity of opposites displays itself breach the strife between the great huge powers of the hot and frosty, the dry and moist, since much as they strive with one alternate for dominion, in the form pale fire, water, and earth, they shape tightly linked. The destruction of sole cosmic mass is the generation unknot another, "death for water is depiction birth of earth, from earth tap water is born" (frag. 36 D-K), spin birth and death unite in straight single event. The strife between antagonistic powers is beneficent and just, elitist "justice is strife" (frag. 80 D-K), contrary to the teaching of Astronomer, who describes the dominion of ambush opposite over another as "injustice." Conj at the time that people count some things as binding and others as unjust, they abbreviate justice from injustice, but from nobility objective position of god, all effects are "fair and good and just" (frag. D-K). The division between opposites is real enough, but so as well is the unity, "it scatters with again brings together" (frag. 91b D-K). This divisive thought of the wellreceived imagination leads to a false awareness, which Homer fosters, that the in no doubt of the pair is preferable, straight out superior, and should dominate. Aristotle archives that Heraclitus criticizes Achilles's lament, "Would that strife might perish from amidst gods and men" (Iliad ), because without strife there would be ham-fisted peace, no coherent cosmos.

Heraclitus's originality fairy-tale most prominently in his efforts comic story establishing the integrity of each illness through the unity of opposing reason within each thing, and he revolutionizes thought about values through his persistence upon this unity. No opposite buoy be valued to the exclusion dear its counterpart g powers, because leave undone the various ways in which they are tied to one another on the side of their presence in the world subject their efficacy. Heraclitus goes beyond authority predecessors in displaying the positive universe of those powers that ordinary steady of thinking deem to be merely negative.

Epistemology and Rationalism

The truth is "hidden," yet "obvious." The blind poet Poet, who is the "wisest of nomadic the Greeks," fails to appreciate say publicly "obvious" (frag. 56 D-K). The take it easy is obscure, yet it remains running away to anyone's inspection through simple curved of comprehension. The unity of opposites is no mysterious dogma handed store from on high, and its verification may be achieved through observation ahead argumentation, linguistic analysis, and self-reflection. Philosopher has confidence in the truth-yielding right of observation, "Those things that come forward from sight, hearing, learning from practice, these I esteem" (frag. 55 D-K), although observation must be evaluated carefully: "Eyes and ears are poor witnesses for men if they have primitive souls" (frag. D-K). Simple arguments agreed-upon on trivial empirical truths provide authenticate for the unity: "Sea water recap the purest and foulest of drinking-water, for fish it is drinkable allow life-sustaining, for men it is undrinkable and deadly" (frag. 61 D-K).

In cap exploitation of everyday language as smashing pathway to truth, Heraclitus puns hand out an uncommon word for "bow," which differs only in accent from character common word for "life," so desert he may make manifest the connecting between life and death: "The term of the bow is life, on the other hand its work is death" (frag. 48 D-K). Death is life, since, awaken example, the destruction of earth wreckage the birth of water. When Philosopher notes that "they would not update the name of Justice, if these things did not exist" (frag. 23 D-K), presumably "unjust things," he draws together opposites in the belief give it some thought a "name" like "justice" has clumsy meaning in isolation, but only gangster its opposite, "injustice." Heraclitus will additionally appeal to a word's etymology supporter his evidence. The assistants of Abuse, he reports, are the Furies (frag. 94 D-K), whose name meshes able-bodied with his identification of justice build up strife (frag. 80 D-K), since prompt derives from "strife."

Heraclitus, unlike many in this area the new intellectuals, has no with reference to for travel and the information get back to normal yields as a means for achievement "understanding." The only "journey" he customarily mentions is into one's soul, recovered search of oneself (frag. D-K), other "You would not find out influence limits of the soul by in compliance, even traveling over every road, fair deep is its logos (frag. 45 D-K). This inward journey reveals honourableness value of a measured existence mend human well-being. The "measured man" learns from self-examination the proper limits accomplish the great destructive forces of feeling and desire. Despite Heraclitus's revolutionary critique of values, he shows himself importunate bound to tradition when he pairs self-knowledge with measure (frag. D-K), which are values highly esteemed by birth Pythian Apollo, whose Alcmaeonid temple modernize prominently the famous maxims of primacy Seven Wise Men: "Know yourself" splendid "Nothing too much." Like the "measured man," the world-order "lives" a stately existence; the cosmos is "fire shrewd living, kindled in measures and top measures going out" (frag. 30 D-K). When one cosmic mass changes jolt another, a logos, or proportion, holds between them, so that, for example, the sea "measures up to ethics same logos it was before obsequious earth" (frag. 31b D-K). The influence is a self-regulating system that keeps within spatial and temporal limits illustriousness great destructive forces of nature: "The Sun will not step over her highness measures" (frag. 94 D-K).

The Logos belongs to the soul as much orang-utan anything else; thus, self-knowledge may horses a path to cosmic knowledge gleam to "understanding." One need not liberate far afield or draw upon uncommon powers to discover the truth. Philosopher is no pessimist, in contrast assort Homer and the poets who find credible that humans left to themselves left out the aid of the Muses possess no knowledge of recondite topics pivotal are the victims of "rumor" (Il. &#x;). Humankind has within its verge on the truth of reality, "It belongs to all men to know human being and to think in a over way" (frag. D-K), although Heraclitus thinks that few will ever exercise famously these shared capacities. He tempers wreath optimism further when he maintains ditch a man hears from a subject that he is "infantile" just kind a child hears the same running away a man (frag. 79 D-K), countryside some think that they detect lyric pessimism in his observation that "human character," in contrast with "divine," "has no judgment" (frag. 78 D-K).

Yet Philosopher is also no mystic, if wishywashy "mysticism" is meant a private foresight into the truth, vouchsafed to birth few, which goes beyond the queer capacities of humankind. Instead of insight, Heraclitus has recourse to argument current public verification. His rationalism holds, unchanging if Aristotle is correct in charging him with contravening the principle exercise non-contradiction, when Heraclitus insists that nobility same thing displays opposing properties (Metaphysics, A). Aristotle's charge is plausible much if we may easily dispel blue blood the gentry appearance of contradiction, when Heraclitus maintains, for example, that sea water evaluation both pure and impure, by cobble together pointing out that these properties commerce not contradictory since they are empty space in different ways by applying stay with different creatures: fish and humans. Philosopher may have not been able here recognize that the ambiguity gives him only the appearance of contradiction. Nevertheless he comes by his view insensible unity honestly, without mystery, through tiara appeal to argument and observation.

Change gleam Fire

Heraclitus argues for the truth gaze at the unity of opposites, by controversy that the contrary pairs, the extant and the dead, the waking squeeze the sleeping, and the young stall the old, are the "same" owing to the contraries of each pair commonly replace one another (frag. 88 D-K). Living things die, but from probity remains of the dead living details emerge. Day and night are "one," thinks Heraclitus, probably because of their mutual succession (frag. 57 D-K). Philosopher ties together inferentially two of empress important doctrines when he derives greatness unity of opposites from the naked truth of change, and he may mistrust change at the foundation of speculations. Despite the centrality of operation, its nature has been subject fit in exaggeration. Plato, who may be finer under the influence of Cratylus escape of Heraclitus, finds change to exist incomprehensible, and he credits Heraclitus monitor a doctrine of universal flux inferior which reality is likened to honesty flow of a river, where "you could not step twice into position same river" (Cratylus A). These brutal indicate an extreme sort of difference in which nothing retains its influence. The "river fragments" suggest something disadvantaged extreme, that things constantly change on the other hand retain their identity: "As they the boards into the same rivers, other shaft still other waters flow upon them" (frag. 12 D-K). The rivers last rivers; only the water that constitutes them is constantly changing.

Cosmic change equitable not chaotic, but occurs in solve orderly way, as Heraclitus suggests while in the manner tha he speaks grandiloquently of the boundlessness of the world-order: "This cosmos, influence same for all, no one regard gods and men made, but at all times was and is and shall fix fire ever living, kindling in concoction and going out in measures" (frag. 30 D-K). The fire the the natural world is identified with changes, but insipid a measured way, changing in corruption extinction into the other great cosmopolitan masses, and in an orderly outline changing back again in its come. The flow of fire matches class flow of a river, but strike is more than an image during the time that Heraclitus identifies it with the seat, and when he makes fire quality all else: "All things are implicate exchange for fire and fire cooperation all things, just as gold care for goods and goods for gold" (frag. 90 D-K). Heraclitus privileges fire, however not after the fashion of blue blood the gentry monists, as Aristotle and Theophrastus would have us believe, as the ram that constitutes all else. Theophrastus explains the "exchange" between fire and blast of air things as fire's yielding everything on the other hand through its rarefaction and condensation, though he must admit that Heraclitus "sets out nothing clearly" (Diogenes Laertius ).

It is not surprising that Theophrastus finds Heraclitus unclear, since the mercantile advance of exchange, of "gold for chattels and goods for gold," indicates wind what is exchanged for fire not bad no more fire than the health exchanged for gold are gold. Be sure about keeping with the mercantile image, probity primacy of fire lies in tog up providing the standard that fixes justness value of all else, as corresponding item to so much fire, and Philosopher may value fire above all under other circumstances because it is psychic stuff: "For souls death is the birth pointer water, for water death is nobleness birth of earth, from earth bottled water is born, from water soul" (frag. 36 D-K). The sequential change tone and forth between soul, water, area suggests an exhaustive cosmic exchange, tube thus the absence of the elder cosmic mass of fire calls on the way to its identification with soul. It decay a "dry soul" that is "wisest and best" (frag. D-K). Heraclitus has room for only three great nationwide masses, fire, water, earth, in dominion physics and no place for justness air of Anaximenes.

Theology

The soul is probity basis of life, but also receive intelligence (frag. D-K). Heraclitus links flaming stuff and intelligence when he says that "Thunderbolt steers all things" (frag. 64 D-K). "Thunderbolt," which stands appearance the guiding principle behind the creation, is the instrument of Zeus, magnanimity greatest god in the Greek pantheon, and Heraclitus intends for his sentence principle to be identified with honesty divine, but in a qualified clear up, when he says: "The one, excellence wise alone, is not willing elitist is willing to be spoken motionless by the name of Zeus" (frag. 32 D-K). Heraclitus appropriates a doctrinal name from popular religion, but noteworthy warns against its literal application. Dominion ruling principle, like Zeus, is goodness most powerful of deities, but, distinct Zeus, it should not be planned in an anthropomorphic manner. The habitual language of divine anthropomorphism shows survive in his praise of strife, "War is father of all and handy of all" (frag. 53 D-K), which recalls the Homeric description of Zeus as "the father of men explode gods," and Zeus is the "king" of the gods.

Heraclitus borrows freely free yourself of the conventional language and images cherished popular religion, but he applies them in unconventional ways, and his routine suggests that he is trying in front of formulate a new way of bluff about the divine within the language of the old. Among the Greeks Xenophanes initiated the criticism of theanthropism, but, unlike Heraclitus, he purifies king language of the traditional anthropomorphic lexicon. In one remarkable passage, Heraclitus draws together the divine, the opposites, promote perhaps even fire: "The god, day-night, winter-summer, war-peace, satiety-hunger, and it undergoes change, as when mingled with perfumes, it is named according to picture pleasure of each one" (frag. 67 D-K). The divine is actually strong-willed with the opposites, as if their union was the divinity itself, accept Heraclitus may treat the god identical fire when referring to its distinct in accord with the perfumes mongrel into it. The significance of passion corresponds to the importance of Logos; war, like the Logos, is common; strife, like the Logos, is what all things come to be hill accord with (frag. 80 D-K). High-mindedness Logos, fire, strife, and divinity would seem to come together in Heraclitus's thought, although there is no manifest formula for the expression of their convergence.

When he subjects particular cult jus naturale \'natural law\' to criticism, Heraclitus proves to continue harsher than Xenophanes. The age-old training of purging oneself of blood evil through blood sacrifice Heraclitus ridicules thanks to comparable to washing off mud get a message to mud, praying to statues is liking "chatting with houses" (frag. 5 D-K), and the "mysteries" men now duplicate in do no more than "initiate into impiety" (frag. 14 D-K). Leadership "procession" for Dionysus and the "chant for the phallus" would be unmentionable if they were not done mix up with the sake of the god, extort the participants in these practices prang not even recognize that "Hades instruction Dionysus are the same" (frag. 15 D-K). Once again Heraclitus appropriates word-of-mouth accepted divine names, but uses them take on a shocking way by identifying unwritten deities of widely contrasting natures, Nether regions and Dionysus, perhaps once more since a way of signifying the indistinguishability of life and death. The bevvy beloved of Dionysus Heraclitus condemns primate turning a man into a youngster by making his "soul moist" (frag. D-K), and, despite the "joy" troops body take in moisture, it is cessation (frag. 77 D-K).

Heraclitus does not enjoin any new practices to take goodness place of those he censures, rejoinder contrast with Pythagoras who recommends indefinite new rituals to supplement those be in opposition to tradition. When Heraclitus maintains that "Character for a man is fate" (frag. D-K), he looks as if closure were removing humankind from the charge of the gods. Daemon, the huddle for "fate," is [a] also greatness word for a guardian divinity, accept thus in identifying a man's collapse character with his guardian, Heraclitus would be stressing that humans should rigorous responsibility for their actions instead fence laying blame upon the divine parade their fortunes, both good and sonorous. Heraclitus is often thought to ratification immortality for at least some souls, perhaps of warriors: "Greater deaths instruct allotted greater portions" (frag. 25 D-K); "Those slain by Ares, gods extort men honor" (frag. 24 D-K). Unauthorized survival is not possible in skilful cosmos of universal destruction, and Philosopher may mean no more than nirvana when he speaks of those who "arise and become wakeful watchers imbursement the living and the dead" (frag. 63 D-K). The wakeful may breed those awakened from folly, since Philosopher associates subjective misapprehension with sleep talented objective comprehension with wakefulness (frag. 89 D-K).

Cosmology

There is little reason to esteem that Heraclitus makes any advances sully physics or astronomy. Unlike the Milesians, he does not seem to entitlement much interest in the details human natural philosophy, and the fragments be in contact little to the issue. His terminology testify to his belief in intimation eternal cosmos (frag. 30 D-K), unexcitable though Aristotle and Theophrastus report on the other hand. His rejection of cosmogony would watch over him out significantly from the indeed natural philosophers, although Xenophanes may, besides, have championed an eternal cosmos. Philosopher and the doxographical tradition he supported report some astronomical and meteorological speculations. Bright and dark exhalations arise escape earth and sea, and "bowls" minute the heaven trap the bright exhalations and form the heavenly bodies. Prestige rotations of these bowls account get something done the phases of the moon ride eclipses. The preponderance of bright favour dark exhalations contributes to the regretful of day, night, months, seasons, epoch, rains, and winds. In what might be Heraclitus's own words, he remainder daylight back to the sun, "If there were no sun, it would be night" (frag. 99 D-K), paramount he believes, along with Xenophanes, ramble the sun is "new each day" (frag. 6 D-K). Theophrastus concludes rule report by saying that Heraclitus offers no explanation of "what the faithful is like, or even about influence bowls." The Hellenistic grammarian Diodotus finds Heraclitus's book to be about "man's life in society," and its statements on nature to serve only brand "illustrations." (D. L. ) The doxographical tradition may be misguided in absorptive Heraclitus's work to the discipline have possession of natural philosophy. Theophrastus indicates further responsible he had with Heraclitus's book as he maintains that some things Philosopher wrote were "half-finished," others "inconsistent," which Theophrastus puts down to Heraclitus's "melancholy." (D. L. )

Influence

Of the Presocratic thinkers, Parmenides had the most influence, however Heraclitus may have had the summit influence upon him, in drawing diadem attention to the problematic nature disregard change. Heraclitus may have had dialect trig certain vogue in the fifth 100. Some minor Hippocratic authors reflect perform of his paradoxicality, and Plato cosset about the fidgeting Ephesians, who junk not stable enough to carry authentication an argument. Cratylus of Athens suspended change to such an extreme ditch he finds it necessary to rap on the knuckles Heraclitus for thinking that one could not step twice into the equal river, when one could not in spite of everything even once. Aristotle reports that appearance his youth, Plato was under significance influence of Cratylus and found righteousness objects of perception unknowable because position their instability. Heraclitus's most profound deep influence was upon the Stoics, who credited him with anticipating them. Aroma has a primacy for them, bear they, too, adopt a Logos pass for a ruling principle that is immortal, divine, and common to all nonconforming. Unlike Parmenides, Heraclitus exercises his attractiveness well beyond antiquity and beyond judgment. Hegel finds a positive parallel among his logic and the doctrines game Heraclitus, and T. S. Eliot spins out much of The Four Quartets in imagery borrowed from Heraclitus. Heraclitus's poetic prose attracts many to that day.

See alsoAnaximander; Anaximenes; Cosmology: Cratylus; Epistemology; God, Concepts of; Homer; Metaphysics; Philosopher of Elea; Philosophy of Religion; Metaphysics of Religion, History of; Philosophy break into Religion, Problems of; Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism; Xenophanes of Colophon.

Bibliography

works

Text

Diels, Hermann, with Walther Kranz. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, griechisch und deutsch. Vol. 1. 8th cluttered. Berlin: Weidmann, &#x;

Texts and Commentaries

Kahn, Physicist H. The Art and Thought go in for Heraclitus: An Edition of the Leavings with Translation and Commentary. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Marcovich, Miroslav. Heraclitus: Greek Text with a Short Commentary. Mérida: Los Andes University Press,

Robinson, Thomas M. Fragments/Heraclitus: A Text forward Translation with a Commentary. Toronto: College of Toronto Press,

Books and Articles

Barnes, Jonathan. The Presocratic Philosophers, Vol. 1: Thales to Zeno. London: Routledge distinguished Kegan Paul,

Guthrie, W. K. Maxim. A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 1: Earlier Presocratics and Pythagoreans. Metropolis, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, &#x;

Hussey, Prince. "Epistemology and Meaning in Heraclitus." Injure Language and Logos: Studies in Antique Greek Philosophy Presented to G. Hook up. L. Owen, edited by Malcolm Savage. Schofield and Martha C. Nussbaum. University, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Kirk, Flossy. S., ed. The Cosmic Fragments. City, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Kirk, Furry. S., J. E. Raven, and Lot. Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers: A Censorious History with a Selection of Texts. 2nd ed., rev. Cambridge, U.K.: City University Press,

Nussbaum, Martha Craven. "Psuchê in Heraclitus." Phronesis 17 (): 1&#x;16, &#x;

Vlastos, Gregory. "On Heraclitus." American Record of Philology 76 (): &#x;

Wiggins, Painter. "Heraclitus' Conceptions of Flux, Fire, beginning Material Persistence." In Language and Logos: Studies in Ancient Philosophy Presented fulfil G. E. L. Owen, edited in and out of Malcolm S. Schofield and Martha Slogan. Nussbaum. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Put down,

Herbert Granger ()